The Case That Our Moral Knowledge Points Toward God: Part 1

INTRODUCTION 

This is the first article in a series on how one might offer several different moral arguments that all (1) focus on our knowledge of moral truth and (2) reinforce each other so that their joint force is even stronger than the force of each individual argument.[1] There are different kinds of moral arguments for the existence of God. Some aim to show that God is needed for objective moral truth to exist; others focus on the advantage that God offers for justifying other aspects of morality, such as: moral knowledge, moral transformation, or moral rationality. This series of articles focuses specifically on three well-known arguments for God’s existence that have to do with our moral knowledge. I will make the case that these arguments, while different, are complementary. After examining each argument, the series concludes by offering a strategy for how they can be used in conjunction so that they reinforce each other. In this first article of the series, I examine Mark Linville’s “Argument from Evolutionary Naturalism” (AEN), which is similar to an argument given by Alvin Plantinga.

THE ARGUMENTS OF MARK LINVILLE AND ALVIN PLANTINGA 

Mark Linville’s AEN is a deductive argument which aims to show that naturalism is false because evolutionary naturalism (EN) undermines any basis for humans having moral knowledge, yet we seem to have moral knowledge.[2] Since Darwinian evolution is the “only game in town” for naturalists in terms of accounting for the diversity of biological life, Linville justifiably lumps evolution and naturalism together.[3] Linville is hardly the first to make the claim that EN cannot justify moral knowledge; many secular ethicists recognize this,[4] and a number of theists, like Linville, have also reached this conclusion—perhaps none more notable than Alvin Plantinga. Let us first examine Linville’s argument and then compare it with Plantinga’s. Linville argues:

(1) If EN is true, then human morality is a by-product of natural selection.

(2) If human morality is a by-product of natural selection, then there is no moral knowledge.

(3) There is moral knowledge.

(4) Therefore, EN is false.[5]

Premise (1) contends that through the process of natural selection we have evolved with a sort of programming to hold moral beliefs that are conducive to survival. Morality is crucial to our “survival and reproductive success,” so we cannot think it is independent of natural selection. All rational moral deliberation must be within the boundaries of that programming.[6] Linville points out that Darwin himself held that our moral programming would have been much different had we evolved under different conditions; if humans had evolved under the sort of conditions in which hive-bees evolved, then “there can hardly be a doubt that our unmarried females would, like the worker-bees, think it a sacred duty to kill their brothers, and mothers would strive to kill their fertile daughters, and no one would think of interfering.”[7] If EN were true, we surely could not escape the bounds of our evolutionary moral programming. So we should accept (1).

Premise (2) recognizes that just because our moral beliefs help us to survive, that does not require that the beliefs track any moral truth. The evolutionary processes involved in the development of our moral beliefs are independent of these beliefs being true, and if EN were true then a plausible account of our moral beliefs can be given by appealing to the survival value of us holding them.[8] This means that “our moral beliefs are without warrant” and “do not amount to knowledge.”[9] By contrast, a theist can appeal to God’s design of our minds to recognize moral truth, providing a basis to justify our moral knowledge. Premise (3) holds that we do seem to have genuine moral knowledge, thus (4) concludes that EN is false.

Alvin Plantinga’s argument is slightly different. While Linville argues that, if EN were true, our moral knowledge would be aimed at adaptiveness for survival, Plantinga emphasizes the adaptiveness of our behavior and argues that all of our beliefs are unimportant apart from their being consistent with adaptive behavior. In a world where EN is true, our beliefs essentially go along for the ride, and their truth or falsity makes no difference so long as they do not get in the way of adaptive behaviors. Plantinga’s argument is that we have reason to doubt the reliability of our “cognitive faculties” (e.g., memory, perception, sympathy, introspection, induction, moral sense).[10] What EN ensures is that we behave in ways that lead to survival and reproduction; thus, the role of our cognitive faculties is not producing true beliefs, but instead “contributing to survival by getting the body parts in the right place.” Natural selection guarantees adaptive behavior, but why think our cognitive faculties produce true beliefs?[11]

Plantinga’s argument goes as follows. Premise (P1) holds that “the conditional probability that our cognitive faculties are reliable, given [EN], is low.”[12] Premise (P2) is that “anyone who accepts (believes)” EN and also realizes that (P1) is true “has a defeater for” thinking that her cognitive faculties are reliable.[13] Premise (P3) then states that “anyone who has a defeater for [the reliability of her cognitive faculties] has a defeater for any other belief she thinks she has, including [EN] itself.”[14] (If one’s cognitive faculties are unreliable, then all beliefs produced by them—which are all of one’s beliefs—are unreliable.) Finally, Premise (P4) concludes that: “If one who accepts [EN] thereby acquires a defeater for [EN], [EN] is self-defeating and can’t be rationally accepted.”[15]

Clearly (P1) is the crucial premise. Linville notes that many intuitively find Plantinga’s first premise implausible because “the link between true belief and adaptive behavior” seems credible when it comes to nonmoral behaviors, such as hunting for food. Linville prefers the more modest claim that EN only calls into question our moral beliefs because the adaptive success of many nonmoral behaviors seem to be tied to the truth of our beliefs.[16]

Despite Linville’s concern, Plantinga makes a solid case for P1. Plantinga recognizes that most of us assume our cognitive faculties are mostly reliable. But “the naturalist has a powerful reason against this assumption, and should give it up” if he also accepts evolution. When a frog eats an insect, it does not matter what the frog believes or whether those beliefs are true so long as the frog engages in the right behavior to eat the insect and thus survive.[17] In response to the sort of concern raised by Linville that “true beliefs will facilitate adaptive action” better than false beliefs, Plantinga agrees but contends that it is “irrelevant” because “we are not asking about how things are, but about what things would be like if both evolution and naturalism (construed as including materialism) were true.”[18] Plantinga is not arguing that our cognitive faculties are unreliable in the actual world; he is only arguing that they would be unreliable if EN were true. Moreover, no test could demonstrate the reliability of one’s cognitive faculties because such a test would require the use of one’s cognitive faculties. Plantinga rightly concludes that “this defeater, therefore, can’t be defeated.”[19]

If Plantinga’s argument succeeds, then it expands the scope of the knowledge problem faced by EN beyond Linville’s argument: All of our beliefs are dubious. Next time, we will look at a second kind of moral knowledge argument.

---

---

1. These articles are adapted for a popular audience from an article that I published in the Journal of the International Society of Christian Apologetics (Volume 12, 2019, pp. 49-64) that is titled “Toward a Cumulative Epistemic Moral Argument for God’s Existence.”

2. Naturalism is the view that the natural world is all that exists (i.e., there is no God or supernatural realm). Evolutionary naturalism is the view that both naturalism and Darwinian evolution are true.

3. Mark Linville, “The Moral Argument,” in The Blackwell Companion to Natural Theology, eds. William Lane Craig and J. P. Moreland (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2009), 392-395.

4. Ibid., 393. Secular ethicists such as E. O. Wilson and Michael Ruse have similarly concluded that EN reduces ethics to an illusion and requires that any belief we have that we are apprehending some real and objective moral truth is merely a “useful fiction” that has survival benefits.

5. Ibid., 394-398. On pages 397-398, Linville frames the argument he laid out on page 394 in epistemic terms by modifying Premises (2) and (3) to refer to “moral knowledge” rather than “moral facts.”

6. Ibid., 400-403.

7. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex, 2nd ed. (New York: D. Appleton & Co, 1882), 99.

8. Linville, “The Moral Argument,” 394-398.

9. Ibid., 397.

10. Alvin Plantinga, Where the Conflict Really Lies: Science, Religion, and Naturalism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 311-312.

11. Ibid., 315-316.

12. Ibid., 317.

13. Ibid., 340.

14. Ibid., 343.

15. Ibid., 344.

16. Linville, “The Moral Argument,” 408.

17. Plantinga, Where the Conflict Really Lies, 328.

18. Ibid., 335.

19. Ibid., 346.

Communion Meditation: The Assurance of Hope

A Twilight Musing

            Hope is generally an undervalued quality of the Christian life, but its ability to focus our faith and bind us together puts it high on the list of virtues in Scripture.  It is mentioned twice (vv. 4 and 13) in the first thirteen verses of Romans 15, and it is at the heart of the prayer that concludes that passage: “May the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace as you trust in him, so that you may overflow with hope by the power of the Holy Spirit.”  In the previous verses, Paul has has been urging unity in the Body of Christ through following the sacrificial example of Jesus, and he marvels that Jesus’ servanthood has brought hope even to the Gentiles.  Now Paul pulls these themes together by praying that God’s diverse people, now one in Christ, may “overflow with hope.” 

            As we meet once again to partake of the Lord’s Supper, we should reclaim the element of hope inherent in it.  When Jesus instituted it, He emphasized that it is both a celebration of his imminent presence with us and a looking backward and forward; it is a remembrance of His death “until He comes.”  Christian hope is the embodiment of our assurance, as we look steadfastly at Jesus, that neither His suffering nor ours is in vain; that servanthood leads to glory; and that death is not final.  Just as He endured the limitations of human existence and emerged victorious, we too can, through the power of the Holy Spirit, experience the wonder of God’s ability and willingness to help us break down all the barriers that threaten to tear us apart in our purely human capacity. 

            And so let us pray the prayer of Romans 15:13 together, in unity, as we partake of the bread and the wine: “May the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace as you trust in him, so that you may overflow with hope by the power of the Holy Spirit.”

---

Dr. Elton Higgs was a faculty member in the English department of the University of Michigan-Dearborn from 1965-2001. Having retired from UM-D as Prof. of English in 2001, he now lives with his wife in Jackson, MI. He has published scholarly articles on Chaucer, Langland, the Pearl Poet, Shakespeare, and Milton. Recently, Dr. Higgs has self-published a collection of his poetry called Probing Eyes: Poems of a Lifetime, 1959-2019, as well as a book inspired by The Screwtape Letters, called The Ichabod Letters, available as an e-book from Moral Apologetics. (Ed.: Dr. Higgs was the most important mentor during undergrad for the creator of this website, and his influence was inestimable.

---

C. S. Lewis and 8 Reasons for Believing in Objective Morality

Photo by Jay Chaudhary on Unsplash

The cornerstone of the moral argument is the existence of an objective moral standard. If there really is a standard of right and wrong that holds true regardless of our opinions and emotions, then the moral argument has the ability to convince. However, apart from the existence of such an objective standard, moral arguments for God’s existence (and Christian theism) quickly lose their persuasive power and morality as a whole falls to the realm of subjective preference. Although I could say a fair amount about what the world would be like if morality really was a matter of preference (consider The Purge), the purpose of this article is to provide reasons for believing in objective morality (or “moral realism,” as philosophers call it).

Because of his continued focus on the objective nature of morality throughout his writings, and due to his unique ability to communicate and defend this concept in a clear and compelling manner, I will rely heavily on the thought of C. S. Lewis below. As I’ve read through a number of Lewis’s books, I’ve identified eight arguments he raises in favor of objective morality. Below is my attempt to list these eight arguments and offer a few thoughts of my own concerning each.

1)    Quarreling between two or more individuals.[1] When quarreling occurs, individuals assume there is an objective standard of right and wrong, of which each person is aware and one has broken. Why quarrel if no objective standard exists?

By definition, quarreling (or arguing) involves trying to show another person that he is in the wrong. And as Lewis indicates, there is no point in trying to do that unless there is some sort of agreement as to what right and wrong actually are, just like there is no sense in saying a football player has committed a foul if there is no agreement about the rules of football.[2]

2)    It’s obvious that an objective moral standard exists.[3] Throughout history, mankind has generally agreed that “the human idea of decent behavior [is] obvious to everyone.”[4] For example, it’s obvious (or self-evident) that torturing a child for fun is morally reprehensible.

As the father of two children, a daughter who is five and a son who is three, I have noticed that even my young children recognize that certain things are obviously right or wrong. For example, while watching a show like PJ Masks, my children can easily point out the good characters as well as the bad ones – even without my help. In short, the overwhelming obviousness that certain acts are clearly right or wrong indicates that an objective moral standard exists.

3)    Mistreatment.[5] One might say he does not believe in objective morality, however, the moment he is mistreated he will react as if such a standard exists. When one denies the existence of an objective standard of behavior, the moment he is mistreated, “he will be complaining ‘It’s not fair!’ before you can say Jack Robinson.”[6]

Sean McDowell relays an example of this when he shares a story involving J. P. Moreland taking the stereo of a University of Vermont student who denied the existence of objective morality in favor of moral relativism. As Moreland was sharing the gospel with the university student, the student responded by saying he (Moreland) couldn’t force his views on others because “everything is relative.” Following this claim, in an effort to reveal what the student really believed about moral issues, Moreland picked up the student’s stereo from his dorm room and began to walk down the hallway, when the student suddenly shouted, “Hey, what are you doing? You can’t do that!”[7]

Again, one might deny the existence of an objective standard of behavior through his words or actions, but he will always reveal what he really believes through his reactions when mistreated. (Note: Here at moralapologetics.com, we do not recommend you go around and mistreat others, as that wouldn’t be a moral way to do apologetics. See what I did there? Rather, we are simply bringing up the mistreatment issue as a way of exposing a deep flaw within moral relativism.)

4)    Measuring value systems.[8] When an individual states that one value system is better than another, or attempts to replace a particular value system with a better one, he assumes there is an objective standard of judgment. This objective standard of judgment, which is different from either value system, helps one conclude that one value system conforms more closely to the moral standard than another. Without some sort of objective measuring stick for value systems, there is no way to conclude that civilized morality, where humans treat one another with dignity and respect, is better than savage morality, where humans brutally murder others, even within their own tribe at times, for various reasons.

To illustrate this point, Lewis says, “The reason why your idea of New York can be truer or less true than mine is that New York is a real place, existing quite apart from what either of us thinks. If when each of us said ‘New York’ each means merely ‘The town I am imagining in my own head,’ how could one of us have truer ideas than the other? There would be no question of truth or falsehood at all.”[9] In the same way, if there is no objective moral standard, then there is no sense in saying that any one value system has ever been morally good or morally bad, or morally superior or inferior to other value systems.

5)    Attempting to improve morally.[10] Certainly, countless individuals attempt to improve themselves morally on a daily basis. No sane person wakes up and declares, “My goal is to become more immoral today!”[11] If there is no absolute standard of good which exists, then talk of moral improvement is nonsensical and actual moral progress is impossible. If no ultimate standard of right and wrong exists, then one might change his actions, but he can never improve his morality.

If there is hope of moral improvement, then there must be some sort of absolute standard of good that exists above and outside the process of improvement. In other words, there must be a target for humans to aim their moral efforts at and also a ruler by which to measure moral progress. Without an objective moral standard of behavior, then “[t]here is no sense in talking of ‘becoming better’ if better means simply ‘what we are becoming’ – it is like congratulating yourself on reaching your destination and defining destination as ‘the place you have reached.’”[12] 

6)    Reasoning over moral issues.[13] When men reason over moral issues, it is assumed there is an objective standard of right and wrong. If there is no objective standard, then reasoning over moral issues is on the same level as one arguing with his friends about the best flavor of ice cream at the local parlor (“I prefer this” and “I don’t like that”). In short, a world where morality is a matter of preference makes it impossible to have meaningful conversations over issues like adultery, sexuality, abortion, immigration, drugs, bullying, stealing, and so on.

7)    Feeling a sense of obligation over moral matters.[14] The words “ought” and “ought not” imply the existence of an objective moral law that mankind recognizes and feels obligated to follow. Virtually all humans would agree that one ought to try to save the life of a drowning child and that one ought not kill innocent people for sheer entertainment. It is also perfectly intelligible to believe that humans are morally obligated to possess (or acquire) traits such as compassion, mercifulness, generosity, and courage.[15]

8)    Making excuses for not behaving appropriately.[16] If one does not believe in an objective standard of behavior, then why should he become anxious to make excuses for how he behaved in a given circumstance? Why doesn’t he just go on with his life without defending himself? After all, a man doesn’t have to defend himself if there is no standard for him to fall short of or altogether break. Lewis maintains, “The truth is, we believe in decency so much – we feel the Rule of Law pressing on us so – that we cannot bear to face the fact that we are breaking it, and consequently we try to shift the responsibility.”[17]

Although the eight reasons provided above do not cover all of the reasons for believing in objective morality, it is a starting point nonetheless. If any of the reasons above for believing in objective morality are valid, then the moral argument for God’s existence (and Christian theism) has the ability to get off the ground. In fact, if there are any good reasons (in this article or beyond it) for believing in an objective moral standard, then I think God’s existence becomes the best possible explanation for morality since such a standard at the least requires a transcendent, good, and personal source – which sounds a lot like the God of Christian theism.

Stephen S. Jordan currently serves as a high school Bible teacher at Liberty Christian Academy. He is also a Bible teacher, curriculum developer, and curriculum editor at Liberty University Online Academy, as well as a PhD student at Liberty University. He and his wife, along with their two children and German shepherd, reside in Goode, Virginia.

[1] C. S. Lewis, Mere Christianity (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001), 3.

[2] Ibid., 4.

[3] Ibid., 5.

[4] Ibid. In the appendix section of The Abolition of Man, Lewis provides a list that illustrates the points of agreement amongst various civilizations throughout history. See C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001), 83-101.

[5] Ibid., 6.

[6] Ibid.

[7] Sean McDowell, Ethix: Being Bold in a Whatever World (Nashville, TN: B&H Books, 2006), 45-46.

[8] C. S. Lewis, The Abolition of Man (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001), 43, 73. Also see Lewis, Mere Christianity, 13.

[9] Lewis, Mere Christianity, 13-14.

[10] C. S. Lewis, “Evil and God,” in God in the Dock, ed. Walter Hooper (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2014), 3-4.

[11] Even if someone’s goal is to become more immoral, he still needs an objective standard to measure the level of his badness.

[12] Ibid.

[13] C. S. Lewis, Miracles (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001), 54.

[14] C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001), 10.

[15] C. Stephen Evans, God and Moral Obligation (New York, NY: Oxford University Press), 2-3.

[16] Lewis, Mere Christianity, 8.

[17] Ibid.

Podcast: Dr. David Baggett on the Euthyphro Dilemma

On this week's episode, we hear from David Baggett regarding the Euthyphro Dilemma. Dr. Baggett provides an excellent summary and a compelling response to this classic problem for theistic ethics.